The Four Modi of Russia's Forced Naturalization of Ukrainians: "Passportization" and its Implications for Transitional Justice

Abstract

"Passportization" is an extraterritorial coercive state practice and a form of forced "naturalization by application." Forced naturalization in annexed territories is essentially territorial, as Russia claims the annexed territories as its own and automatically considers all residents as Russian citizens ("automatic naturalization"). Distinguishing between the two different institutional frameworks of occupation and annexation and the degree of coercion, this analysis identifies four modi of passportization and forced naturalization of Ukrainians for the period 2014-2023 in which individuals' potential for agency and choice in acquiring or rejecting Russian citizenship - and thus their responsibility and, by extension, potential criminal liability - has differed markedly. Ukrainian political debates among elites and the views of the population show that it remains controversial how to respond to Russia's policy of forced naturalization. This analysis argues that the starting point for tailoring transitional justice measures in the area of citizenship should be these different degrees of agency.