Education bias in probability-based surveys in Germany: evidence and possible solutions

Abstract

This paper outlines two studies on education bias in German probability-based surveys. Study 1 reviews data from 67 surveys across 19 survey programs conducted in Germany from 2000 to 2023. We found a consistent underrepresentation of individuals with a low level of formal education. We also found that the transition to self-administered modes due to rising survey costs may exacerbate this bias in the future. In study 2, we use the results of a workshop with experts on probability-based surveys, to discuss various strategies to deal with this bias, including increased face-to-face contacts and incentives, while emphasizing the need for research on adapting survey designs. Our findings underscore the urgency for further research to understand the nonparticipation mechanisms among less educated individuals and develop effective countermeasures. We advocate for collaborative efforts among survey researchers, cross-country comparative research, and consideration of potential trade-offs with other data quality dimensions.